Renewable energy transition
Governments around the world have developed
some ambitious goals for a transition to renewable energy
“There is sky-rocketing demand around the world for minerals which are used in clean-tech and which can aid our transition to a low carbon economy. That demand represents a real economic opportunity for New Zealand.” – Minister for Energy and Resources Megan Woods, Minerals Forum, May 2018.
To make that transition a huge amount of minerals are required. Almost everything related to a low carbon economy – from batteries to wind turbines, solar panels and electric vehicles – require minerals.
International Energy Agency report the role of critical minerals in clean energy transitions says:
“An energy system powered by clean energy technologies differs profoundly from one fuelled by traditional hydrocarbon resources. Solar photovoltaic (PV) plants, wind farms and electric vehicles (EVs) generally require more minerals to build than their fossil fuel-based counterparts. A typical electric car requires six times the mineral inputs of a conventional car and an onshore wind plant requires nine times more mineral resources than a gas-fired plant. Since 2010 the average amount of minerals needed for a new unit of power generation capacity has increased by 50% as the share of renewables in new investment has risen.”
And, according to the World Bank, metals which could also see a growing global market include:
- Aluminium (including its key constituent, bauxite)
- Copper
- Cobalt
- Iron
- Lithium
- Manganese
- Nickel
- Platinum (the platinum group of metals)
- Rare Earth Elements (REEs) including cadmium, molybdenum, neodymium, and indium
- Silver
- Titanium
- Zinc
What green minerals are in New Zealand?
New Zealand has the potential to supply many of the minerals required for a low emissions future.
In 2018, a mineral potential study, commissioned by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE), found possible areas of lithium, nickel-cobalt and rare earth minerals – also known as “green minerals”.
The study concluded there was a high potential for lithium along the West Coast and the Taupō volcanic range, nickel-cobalt in Tasman-Marlborough and Southland, and rare earth elements on the West Coast.
The table below shows the minerals required for a selection of green technologies and which ones New Zealand has potential to supply.
New Zealand potential contribution for selected green technologies
| Iron | Steel | Lithium | Nickel | Cobalt | REEs | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind turbine manufacturing | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||
| Solar photovoltaic installations | ✔ | ✔ | ||||
| Carbon capture and storage installations | ✔ | ✔ | ||||
| LED manufacturing | ✔ | ✔ | ||||
| Electric vehicle manufacturing | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||
| Lithium-ion batteries | ✔ | |||||
| Scroll right to see more > | ||||||
Source: World Bank June 2017
New Zealand also has sources of vanadium, used in the vanadium redox battery (VRB) a type of rechargeable flow battery which can be used for grid energy storage. Vanadium is also used in wind turbines, railway tracks, bridges, and jet engines, as well as to make cars.
Mining these green minerals responsibly will boost our economy and create jobs.
As the table below shows, most of our “strategic mineral” potential happens to lie under conservation land. Much of that land is lower value – not national parks – which is why a blanket ban on mining on all conservation land makes no sense at all.
Areas of green mineral potential
| Rare Earth | Nickel-Cobalt | Lithium | |
|---|---|---|---|
| On public conservation land | 10,029 km² (79%) |
6,041 km² (69%) |
10,367 km² (66%) |
| Outside public conservation land | 2,621 km² (21%) |
2,759 km² (31%) |
5,294 km² (34%) |
| Total | 12,650 km² | 8,799 km² | 15,661 km² |
| Scroll right to see more > | |||
Rare earth elements
The 17 metals known as the rare earth elements (REEs) are central to green and advanced technologies.
REEs are, in fact, not rare, although they are not common. The term derives from the 1400s, when “rare” meant unusual or strange, and “earth” describes the appearance of REE oxides. The REEs are mostly heavy metals, similar in weight to platinum, gold, and lead. To complete the 17, the lighter scandium and yttrium are included, having similar chemical properties to the other REEs.
What are REEs used for?
High-tech uses for REEs include:
- Magnets, such as for wind turbines (neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium)
- Batteries, for electric and hybrid vehicles (several kilograms of REEs in each vehicle)
- Electronics (tantalum)
- High-performance ceramics (yttrium)
- Phosphors, used in TVs and energy-efficient lamps (europium, terbium)
- Refrigerants (gadolinium)
- Superalloys of steel (scandium)
- Catalysts (cerium, tantalum). These metals are technology performance improvers where space is at a premium - in computer hard drives, mobile phones, superconductors, capacitors, hearing aids, pacemakers, lasers, optics, GPS systems, electromagnets.
Where do REEs come from?
REEs are formed in uncommon types of volcanic rock. Geological processes are usually necessary to concentrate them into mineable deposits. Erosion and weathering of source rock is one avenue, with material carried down rivers and deposited as sediment. Being heavy, REEs accumulate at places where lighter material is carried away, as is the case for alluvial gold.
REEs may be mined as a low cost by-product of mining for other metals, such as iron oxide, copper and gold.
